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TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
A. The Filartiga Precedent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii
B. The Impact of Human Rights Litigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
C. The Global Accountability Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
D. A Road Map to the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii

The Statutory Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix
A Note About Citations and Updates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxi
About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiii

PART I: THE ALIEN TORT STATUTE (ATS) . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 1: The Alien Tort Statute (ATS): From 1789 to Filartiga, Sosa, and Beyond . . . . .. 3
A. The Early History of the ATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
B. The Filartiga Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
C. From Filartiga to Sosa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
D. Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
E. Post-Sosa Cases and the Current State of the ATS . . . . . . 21

Chapter 2: Understanding the Alien Tort Statute (ATS): The Analytic Framework . . . . . . .27
A. Establishing Subject Matter Jurisdiction over an ATS Claim . . . . . . 28
B. The Source of the Cause of Action in an ATS Case . . . . . 32
C. Choice of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
D. Constitutionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
E. Extraterritoriality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Chapter 3: Plaintiffs, Defendants, and Violations in Alien Tort Statute (ATS) Suits . . . . . 45
A. Plaintiffs and Defendants in ATS Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1. Who Can Sue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2. Who Can Be Sued . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
B. Human Rights Violations Actionable Under the ATS . . . . . 47
1. From Filartiga to Sosa: Universal, Obligatory, and Definable. . . 48
2. The Sosa Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
a. Widely Accepted and Clearly Defined . . . . . . . . 50
b. Sosa’s Cautionary Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
c. “Practical Consequences” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
d. The Continuing Vitality of Pre-Sosa ATS Decisions . . . 57
e. An Evolving Definition of the Law of Nations . . 59
3. Applying the Standard Before and After Sosa. . . . . . . 61
C. Finding and Proving International Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

PART II: OTHER BASES FOR SUIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Chapter 4: The Torture Victim Protection Act (TVPA) . . . . 75
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
B. History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
C. Relationship to the Alien Tort Statute (ATS) . . . . . . . . . . 80
1. The TVPA Endorses the Filartiga Line of Cases . . . . 80
2. The Dispute About Whether the TVPA Replaces Some ATS Claims . . . . . . . 81
3. Using the TVPA to Fill Gaps in the ATS . . . . . . . . 84
D. Who Can Sue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
E. Who Can be Sued . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
F. Retroactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Chapter 5: Jurisdiction Over States: The Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) . . . . 89
A. The FSIA and the Traditional Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
B. The “State Sponsors of Terrorism” Exceptions . . . . . . . . . 94
1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2. Collecting Judgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3. Suits Against Government Officials . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
C. The Cause of Action in FSIA Litigation . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Chapter 6: Other Grounds for Human Rights Litigation . . . . 103
A. Section 1331 and Federal Common Law Claims . . . . . . . . 104
1. Section 1331 Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2. The Cause of Action in Section 1331 Claims . . . . . . 108
B. The Anti-Terrorism Act (ATA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
C. The Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) . .113
1. The Elements of a RICO Claim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2. The Parties and Pleading Requirements . . . . . . . . . . 116
3. Extraterritorial Jurisdiction and Jurisdictional Discovery . . . . . . . . . 118
D. State or Foreign Law Claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
1. Pleading Parallel Domestic Law Torts . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2. Litigating Domestic Law Claims in State or Federal Courts. . . . . . . 121
3. The Pros and Cons of Pleading Domestic Law Claims . . . . . . . 123

PART III: ACTIONABLE HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS . . . 129

Chapter 7: Historical Paradigms, Modern Violations . . . . . . 131
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
B. The Alien Tort Statute (ATS) Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
C. The “Historical Paradigms” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
1. Piracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2. Violations of Safe Conducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3. The Rights of Ambassadors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
D. The Enumerated Violations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
1. Torture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2. Extrajudicial Killing or Summary Execution . . . . . . . 148
3. Hostage-Taking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4. Aircraft Sabotage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
E. Additional ATS Claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
1. Genocide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2. Crimes Against Humanity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3. War Crimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4. Disappearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5. Slavery, Forced Labor, Child Labor, and Trafficking . . 169
a. Slavery and the Slave Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
b. Forced Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
c. Child Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
d. Human Trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6. Arbitrary Detention and Arrest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7. Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment . . . . . . . . . 181
8. Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
9. Religious Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10. Forced Exile and Forced Relocation . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
11. Freedom of Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
12. Right to Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
13. Gender Violence, Sexual Violence, and Gender Discrimination . . . 198
a. Gender Violence and Sexual Violence . . . . . . . 198
b. Gender Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
14. Racial Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
15. Systematic Violations of Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . 204
F. Claims that Have Been Generally Unsuccessful to Date . . . . 205
1. Environmental Harm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
2. Loss of Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3. Miscellaneous Claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Chapter 8: Treaty Violations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
A. Enforcing Treaties in U.S. Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
B. The Treaty Prong of the Alien Tort Statute (ATS) . . . . . . 219
C. Common Treaty Claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
1. The Vienna Convention on Consular Relations . . . . . . 221
2. The Geneva Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
3. Child Soldiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
D. Treaty Claims Against Private Defendants . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

PART IV: PARTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Chapter 9: The Plaintiff: Who Can Sue? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
A. Nationality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
B. Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
C. Relationship to the Human Rights Violation . . . . . . . . . . 232
D. Anonymous Plaintiffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
E. Class Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
1. The Pros and Cons of Filing as a Class Action . . . . . 239
2. Human Rights Class Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
F. Organizational Plaintiffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Chapter 10: Who Can Be Sued I: Personal Jurisdiction and Theories of Liability . . . . . . 247
A. Personal Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
B. General Issues Related to the Defendant’s Liability . . . . . . 251
1. State Action/Private Defendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
2. Responsibility of Higher Officials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
3. Complicity in the Acts of Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
a. Aiding and Abetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
i. The ATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
ii. Other Statutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
b. Conspiracy and Joint Criminal Enterprise . . . . . . 274
c. Traditional Tort Theories of Liability . . . . . . . . 276
i. Agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
ii. Joint Venture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
iii. Reckless Disregard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

Chapter 11: Who Can Be Sued II: U.S. and Local Government Defendants. . . . . . . . . . . 281
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
B. The Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA) and Sovereign Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
2. Suits Against U.S. Government Officials and Substitution of the U.S. Government as Defendant . . 286
a. The Statutory Claims Exception: Statutes and Treaties . . . . . . . . . . .286
b. The Substitution Process and Challenges to Substitution . . . . . . . . . . 290
c. The Scope of Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
d. Equitable Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
3. Exhaustion of Administrative Remedies . . . . . . . . . . 298
4. Exceptions to the Waiver of Immunity . . . . . . . . . . 298
a. The Foreign Country Exception . . . . . . . . . . . 298
b. Combatant Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
c. Intentional Torts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
d. Discretionary Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
C. The Political Question Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
D. The Torture Victim Protection Act (TVPA) and U.S. Officials . . . . 302
E. A Note on the Military Commissions Act of 2006 (MCA) . . 304
F. The State Secrets Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
G. Suing State and Local Officials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

Chapter 12: Who Can Be Sued III: Corporations . . . . . . . . 309
A. Evolution of the Alien Tort Statute (ATS): Toward Corporate Complicity . . . . . . . . 311
B. Corporate Liability Under the ATS: Cases, Requirements, and Limitations . . . . . . 312
1. ATS Cases Alleging Direct Corporate Abuses . . . . . . 313
2. Indirect Corporate Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
3. Corporate Structure Arguments: Parents and Subsidiaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
C. Defenses in Corporate Human Rights Cases . . . . . . . . . . 323
D. Application of the Torture Victim Protection Act (TVPA) and Other Statutory Grounds for Corporate Liability . . . . . . . . 325
E. State Law Human Rights Claims Against Corporations . . . . 326
F. Government Contractors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
1. The Scope of the Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA) . . . 328
2. The Government Contractor Defense . . . . . . . . . . . 328

PART V: DEFENSES AND IMMUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . 335

Chapter 13: Foreign Affairs and Separation of Powers . . . . . 337
A. Political Question Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
1. Overview of the Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
2. Applying the Six Baker v. Carr Factors to Human Rights Litigation. . . . 341
B. Act of State Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
C. International Comity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
D. “Case-Specific Deference” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
E. Foreign Affairs Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

Chapter 14: Immunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
A. The Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) and Individual Officials . . . . 365
B. Head-of-State Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
C. Diplomatic Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
1. Accredited Diplomats and Consular Officers . . . . . . . 378
2. “Mission” Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
3. Officials of the United Nations and Other Public International Organizations . . .380
D. Waivers of Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

Chapter 15: Miscellaneous Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
A. Statute of Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
1. Equitable Tolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
2. Retroactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
B. Forum Non Conveniens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
1. The Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
2. The Anti-Terrorism Act (ATA) and “State Sponsors of Terrorism” Claims .. . . . 394
3. Application of the Doctrine in Alien Tort Statute and Torture Victim Protection Act Cases . . .395
a. Adequate Alternative Forum . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
b. The Deference Due Plaintiff’s Choice of Forum . . 397
c. Private Interest Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
d. Public Interest Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
4. Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
C. Exhaustion of Domestic Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
1. The Exhaustion Requirement Under the TVPA . . . . . . 402
a. The Defendant’s Burden to Raise and Prove the Defense . . . . . . 403
b. Inadequate Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
2. The ATS and Exhaustion of Domestic Remedies . . . . 407

Chapter 16: The Role of the Executive Branch . . . . . . . . . 411
A. Forms of Executive Submissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
B. Soliciting, Opposing, and Influencing Executive Branch Submissions . . . . 415
1. Requests for Executive Branch Submissions . . . . . . . 415
2. Challenging Requests for Executive Branch Submissions . . . . . 417
a. Respecting Executive Branch Inaction . . . . . . . . 418
b. Premature Requests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
3. Challenging the Content of Submission . . . . . . . . . . 420
C. The Deference Due to Executive Branch Views . . . . . . . . 423
D. Executive Branch Submissions in Human Rights Cases: An Overview . . . . . . . 433

PART VI: LITIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

Chapter 17: Preparing and Filing a Manageable Case . . . . . 441
A. Developing a Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
1. The Origins of the Litigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
2. Working with Potential Plaintiffs: Understanding the Goals of the Litigation and the Impact on the Plaintiffs’ Lives . . . . 443
3. Linking Plaintiffs to a Defendant and a Human Rights Violation . . . . 447
4. Ensuring that the Case Is Manageable . . . . . . . . . . 448
5. Pre-Filing Investigation and Fact Gathering . . . . . . . . 449
B. Drafting the Complaint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
C. Locating and Freezing Assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
D. Service and Filing Under Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

Chapter 18: After the Complaint Is Filed and Served . . . . . 461
A. Motions to Dismiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
B. Pro Se Defendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
C. Default Judgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
1. Entry of Default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
2. Motion for Default Judgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
3. A Hearing on the Default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470

Chapter 19: Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
A. Out-of-Court Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
B. Pre-Merits or Jurisdictional Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
C. Merits Discovery Under the Federal Rules . . . . . . . . . . . 477
D. Third-Party Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
E. Discovery from the U.S. Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
F. Foreign Discovery and Obtaining Evidence from Abroad . . . 486
1. Obtaining Evidence from Parties over Whom U.S. Courts Have Jurisdiction . . . . 487
a. Document Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
b. Oral Examination of Witnesses . . . . . . . . . . . 488
c. Specific Hurdles to Discovery Abroad . . . . . . . 489
2. Obtaining Evidence from Targets over Whom the U.S.Court Has No Jurisdiction or Will Not Exercise Jurisdiction . . . .. . . 492
a. Hague Evidence Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
b. Letters Rogatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
c. Bilateral Treaties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
G. Expert Discovery Under the Federal Rules . . . . . . . . . . . 494
H. Responding to Defendants’ Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
1. Communication with the Plaintiffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
2. Discovery from Plaintiffs’ Counsel and Their Agents . . 496
3. Statements to the Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
4. Allegations of Misconduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
I. Discovery from Third Parties, Including Human Rights Organizations . . . . . . . 499
J. Protective Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

Chapter 20: Proving a Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
A. Fact Issues: Who Did What to Whom, When, and Where . . 504
B. Proof of Damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
1. Compensatory Damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
2. Punitive Damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
C. Expert Witnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
1. Setting the Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
2. Corporate Structure and Financial Documents . . . . . . 513
3. Local Law and International Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
D. Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
E. Additional Evidentiary Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
F. Class Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521

Chapter 21: Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
A. Monetary Damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
1. The Sosa/Fila´rtiga Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
2. Compensatory Damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
3. Punitive Damages Under the Alien Tort Statute (ATS) . . . . . . 526
4. Punitive Damages Under the Torture Victim Protection Act (TVPA) . . . 528
B. Injunctive Relief and Declaratory Judgments . . . . . . . . . . 529
C. Other Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
D. Attorneys’ Fees and Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
E. Enforcing Judgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
2. Obstacles to Pre-Judgment Attachment . . .534
3. Enforcing Judgments in the United States . . . . . . . . 535
4. Enforcing Judgments in a Foreign Country . . . . . . . . 536

PART VII: HISTORICAL JUSTICE CLAIMS P. . . . . . . . . . 541

Chapter 22: Historical Justice Claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
A. Standing to Sue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
B. Statute of Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
C. Sovereign Immunity, the Political Question Doctrine, and Related Defenses .. . . . . . 546
D. State Law Claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548

Statutory Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
A. Alien Tort Statute (ATS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
B. Torture Victim Protection Act (TVPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
C. Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
D. Anti-Terrorism Act (ATA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
E. Torture Victim Protection Act (TVPA) Legislative History . . 561
1. House Report No. 102-367(I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
2. Senate Report No. 102-249 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
3. Signing Statement by President George H.W. Bush . . . 584

Table of International Documents Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Table of Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611